Travel and satisfaction changes in response to working from home (WFH) in Perth, Western Australia

Doina Olaru; Brett Smith; Tristan W. Reed; Sharon Biermann

doi:10.59490/ejtir.2026.26.3.7850

Travel and satisfaction changes in response to working from home (WFH) in Perth, Western Australia

Authors

Doina Olaru UWA Business School, The University of Western Australia, Australia https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8750-9656
Brett Smith UWA Business School, The University of Western Australia, Australia https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3053-5941
Tristan W. Reed UWA Business School, The University of Western Australia, Australia https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0839-6807
Sharon Biermann Planning and Transport Research Centre, The University of Western Australia, Australia https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7090-5505

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.59490/ejtir.2026.26.3.7850

Keywords:

working-from-home (WFH), travel implications, satisfaction, covariance-based structural equation modelling (CB-SEM)

Abstract

The working-from-home (WFH) experiment during the COVID-19 pandemic has transformed our lives in unprecedented ways and the practice is likely to stay, with substantial changes to activity-travel behaviour. Drawing on three waves of employee surveys (2021-2022), this paper reports on associations between individual circumstances, work and travel behaviour, as well as their impacts on satisfaction during the pandemic, in Perth, Western Australia (WA). Before the pandemic, the average WFH rate in Perth was only 3.4% of all employees, with significant variation across job types. However, during 2020-2022, this rate increased substantially, with employees showing a manifest interest in continuing and expanding the practice. This shift in working patterns has resulted in changes in commuting and time use, as well as in the overall satisfaction of the employees and their well-being. The associations are tested using a covariance-based structural equation model (CB-SEM), showing positive impacts of WFH and reduced commute in satisfaction with travel, which in turn positively contributes to life satisfaction, after controlling for other life domains and socio-economic factors.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

Metrics

Metrics Loading ...

References

Adams-Prassl, A., Boneva, T., Golin, M., & Rauh, C. (2021). Work that can be done from home: Evidence on variation within and across occupations and industries. Labour Economics, 74, Article 102083. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2021.102083

Aksoy, C. G., Barrero, J. M., Bloom, N., Davis, S. J., Dolls, M., & Zarate, P. (2022). Working from Home Around the World. Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, 2022(2), 281-360. https://doi.org/10.1353/eca.2022.a901274

Asadieh, B., & Neisch, P. M. (2025). Liberation from location ties: A descriptive systematic review of shifts in location perception during and after the COVID-19 pandemic. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives, 31, Article 101395. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trip.2025.101395

Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2022). Household Impacts of COVID-19 Survey. Australian Bureau of Statistics. https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/people-and-communities/household-impacts-covid-19-survey/mar-2022

Barrero, J. M., Bloom, N., & Davis, S. J. (2021). Why working from home will stick [Working Paper 28731]. NBER Working Paper Series. https://doi.org/10.3386/w28731

Barrero, J. M., Bloom, N., & Davis, S. J. (2023). The evolution of work from home. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 37(4), 23-50. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.37.4.23

Beck, M. J., & Hensher, D. A. (2020a). Insights into the impact of COVID-19 on household travel and activities in Australia - The early days under restrictions. Transport Policy, 96, 76–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2020.07.001

Beck, M. J., & Hensher, D. A. (2020b). Insights into the impact of COVID-19 on household travel and activities in Australia - The early days of easing restrictions. Transport Policy, 99, 95–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2020.08.004

Beck, M. J., Hensher, D. A., & Wei, E. (2020). Slowly coming out of COVID-19 restrictions in Australia: Implications for working from home and commuting trips by car and public transport. Journal of Transport Geography, 88, Article 102846. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2020.102846

Beck, M. J., Hensher, D. A., & Balbontin, C. (2024). Three city regions, three different experiences: The impact of lockdown severity on working from home and the potential implications for cities. Cities, 147, Article 104800. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2024.104800

Berger Ploszaj, H. H., Rocha Fernandes, B. H., Camou Viacava, J. J., & Nassar Cardoso, A. (2025). Understanding the associations between “work from home”, job satisfaction, work-life balance, stress, and gender in an organizational context of remote work. Discover Psychology, 5, Article 24. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44202-025-00342-7

Bergstad, C. J., Gamble, A., Gärling, T., Hagman, O., Polk, M., Ettema, D., Friman, M., & Olsson, L. E. (2010). Subjective well-being related to satisfaction with daily travel. Transportation, 38(1), 1-15, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11116-010-9283-z

Chatterjee, K., Chng, S., Clark, B., Davis, A., de Vos, J., Ettema, D., Handy, S., Martin, A., & Reardon, L. (2019). Commuting and wellbeing: A critical overview of the literature with implications for policy and future research. Transport Reviews, 40(1), 5-34. https://doi.org/10.1080/01441647.2019.1649317

Chaves, C. (2021). Wellbeing and Flourishing. In M. L. Kern, & M. L. Wehmeyer (Eds.), The Palgrave Handbook of Positive Education. Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-64537-3_11

Chen, Z. (2021). Influence of working from home during the COVID-19 crisis and HR practitioner response. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, Article 710517. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.710517

Choudhury, P., Foroughi, C., & Larson, B. (2020). Work-from-anywhere: The productivity effects of geographic flexibility. Strategic Management Journal, 42(4), 655–683. https://doi.org/10.1002/smj.3251

Clark, B., Chatterjee, K., Martin, A., & Davis, A. (2019). How commuting affects subjective wellbeing. Transportation, 47(6), 2777–2805. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11116-019-09983-9

Currie, G., Jain, T., & Aston, L. (2021). Evidence of a post-COVID change in travel behaviour –Self-reported expectations of commuting in Melbourne, Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 153, 218–234, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2021.09.009

Curtis, C., Biermann, S., Olaru, D., Knight, C., Lee, J., Smith, B., Reed, T., & Martinus, K. (2022). Working from home: Changes in transport demand – the case of Greater Perth (Project No. iMOVE 1-036, Milestone 5). Planning and Transport Research Centre. https://api.research-repository.uwa.edu.au/ws/portalfiles/portal/280604888/Working_from_home_Overview.pdf

Curtis, C., Olaru, D., Smith, B., Reed, T. W., Knight, C., & Biermann, S. (2024). Sustainable urban mobility transition through working from home (WFH)/ Travel Behaviour and Society, 39, Article 100953. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tbs.2024.100953

de Vos, J. (2019). Satisfaction-induced travel behaviour. Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, 63, 12-21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trf.2019.03.001

de Vos, J. (2020). The effect of COVID-19 and subsequent social distancing on travel behavior. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives, 5, Article 100121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trip.2020.100121

de Vos, J., Schwanen, T., van Acker, V., & Witlox, F. (2015). How satisfying is the scale for travel satisfaction?. Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, 29, 121-130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trf.2015.01.007

Diener, E. (1984). Subjective well-being. Psychological Bulletin, 95(3), 542-575. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.95.3.542

Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49(1), 71-75. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa4901_13

Diener, E., Wirtz, D., Tov, W., Kim-Prieto, C., Choi. D., Oishi, S., & Biswas-Diener, R. (2009). New well-being measures: Flourishing and positive and negative feelings. Social Indicators Research, 97(2), 143-156. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-009-9493-y

Dingel, J. I., & Neiman, B. (2020). How many jobs can be done at home?. Journal of Public Economics, 189, Article 104235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2020.104235

Eliasson, J. (2021). Will we travel less after the pandemic?. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives, 13, Article 100509. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trip.2021.100509

Ettema, D., Gärling, T., Eriksson, L., Friman, M., Olsson, L. E., & Fujii, S. (2010). Satisfaction with travel and subjective well-being: Development and test of a measurement tool. Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, 14(3), 167-175. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trf.2010.11.002

Greaves, S., Beck, M., Cobbold, A., Standen, C., Rissel, C., & Crane, M. (2023). Working from home, active travel, health and wellbeing: Legacies of a pandemic. Travel Behaviour and Society, 34, Article 100707. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tbs.2023.100707

Hackney, A., Yung, M., Somasundram, K. G., Nowrouzi-Kia, B., Oakman, J., & Yazdani, A. (2022). Working in the digital economy: A systematic review of the impact of work from home arrangements on personal and organizational performance and productivity. PLoS ONE, 17(10), Article e0274728. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0274728

Heisler, S. (2020, March 24). Where and when local travel decreased from COVID-19 around the world: What telemetry data tells us. Mapbox. https://blog.mapbox.com/movement-changes-around-the-world-from-covid-19-cc79db7e04c7

Hensher, D. A., Balbontin, C., Beck, M. J., & Wei, E. (202 1). The impact of working from home on modal commuting choice response during COVID-19: Implications for two metropolitan areas in Australia. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 155, 179–201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2021.11.011

Hensher, D. A., Beck, M. J., & Nelson, J. D. (2023). What have we learned about long-term structural change brought about by COVID-19 and working from home?. Transportation Letters, 16(7), 738-750. https://doi.org/10.1080/19427867.2023.2237269

Huang, Z., Loo, B. P. Y., & Axhausen, K. W. (2022). Travel behaviour changes under Work-from-home (WFH) arrangements during COVID-19. Travel Behaviour and Society, 30, 202-211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tbs.2022.09.006

Jara-Diaz, S. (2019). Transport and time use: The values of leisure, work and travel. Transport Policy, 86, A7-A13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2019.12.001

Knight, C., Olaru, D., Lee, J. A., Parker, S. K. (2022). The loneliness of the hybrid worker. MIT Sloan Management Review, 63(4).

Kroenke, K., Spitzer, R. L., Williams, J. B., & Löwe, B. (2009). An ultra-brief screening scale for anxiety and depression: The PHQ–4. Psychosomatics, 50(6), 613-621. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0033-3182(09)70864-3

Kroesen, M. (2018). Is active travel part of a healthy lifestyle? Results from a latent class analysis. Journal of Transport & Health, 12, 42-49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jth.2018.11.006

Kroesen, M., & Chorus, C. (2020). A new perspective on the role of attitudes in explaining travel behavior: A psychological network model. Transportation Research A: Policy and Practice, 133, 82-94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2020.01.014.

Lee, K. (2023). Working from home as an economic and social change: A review. Labour Economics, 85, Article 102462. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2023.102462

Linder, E. (2024, September 17). With Amazon ordering all staff back into the office, what can you expect from your workplace?. ABC News. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2024-09-17/amazon-orders-all-staff-back-into-office-full-time-expl/104359662

Lund, S., Madgavkar, A., Manyika, J., & Smit, S. (2020). What’s next for remote work: An analysis of 2,000 tasks, 800 jobs, and nine countries. McKinsey Global Institute. https://www.mckinsey.com/featured-insights/future-of-work/whats-next-for-remote-work-an-analysis-of-2000-tasks-800-jobs-and-nine-countries

Maheshwari, R., van Acker, V., & Gerber, P. (2024). Commuting vs teleworking: How does it impact the relationship between commuting satisfaction and subjective well-being. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 182, Article 104041. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2024.104041

Marra, A. D., Sun, L., & Corman, F. (2021). The impact of COVID-19 pandemic on public transport usage and route choice: Evidences from a long-term tracking study in urban area. Transport Policy, 116, 258-268. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2021.12.009

McPhail, R., Chan, X. W., May, R., & Wilkinson, A. (2023). Post-COVID remote working and its impact on people, productivity, and the planet: an exploratory scoping review. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 35(1), 154–182. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2023.2221385

Mokhtarian, P. L. (1991) Telecommuting and travel: State of the practice, state of the art. Transportation, 18(4), 319–342. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00186563

Nagler, M., Rincke, J., & Winkler, E. (2024). Working from home, commuting, and gender. Journal of Population Economics, 37(3), Article 58. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00148-024-01035-6

Parker, S. K., Knight, C., Keller, A. C. (2020, July 30). Remote managers are having trust issues. Harvard Business Review. https://hbr.org/2020/07/remote-managers-are-having-trust-issues

Pawluk De Toledo, K., O’Hern, S., & Koppel, S. (2022). A social-ecological model of working from home during COVID-19. Transportation, 51(4), 1181-1208. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11116-022-10331-7

Platts, K., Breckon, J., & Marshall, E. (2022). Enforced home-working under lockdown and its impact on employee wellbeing: A cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health, 22(1), Article 199. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-12630-1

Poudel, N., & Singleton, P. A. (2022). Analyzing simple work time and commute time tradeoffs for insights into components of the value of travel time savings. Travel Behaviour and Society, 28, 330-337. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tbs.2022.04.011

Rafiq, R., McNally, M. G., Uddin, Y. S., Ahmed, T. (2022). Impact of working from home on activity-travel behavior during the COVID-19 Pandemic: An aggregate structural analysis. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 159, 35-54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2022.03.003

Renton, S. (2020). Australians post COVID-19: Understanding how COVID-19 has shaped our society. Technical Report. McCrindle Research. McCrindle Research. https://mccrindle.com.au/app/uploads/reports/COVID19-Phase3-Report-2020.pdf

Singleton, P. A. (2018). Validating the Satisfaction with Travel Scale as a measure of hedonic subjective well-being for commuting in a U.S. city. Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, 60, 399-414. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trf.2018.10.029

Šmite, D., Moe, N. B., Klotins, E., & Gonzalez-Huerta, J. (2022). From forced Working-From-Home to voluntary working-from-anywhere: Two revolutions in telework. The Journal of Systems and Software, 195, Article 111509. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jss.2022.111509

Stiles, J., & Smart, M. J. (2020). Working at home and elsewhere: Daily work location, telework, and travel among United States knowledge workers. Transportation, 48(5), 2461-2491. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11116-020-10136-6

Tao, Y., Petrović, A., & van Ham, M. (2022). Commuting behaviours and subjective wellbeing: A critical review of longitudinal research. Transport Reviews, 43(4), 599–621. https://doi.org/10.1080/01441647.2022.2145386

van Wee, B., & Witlox, F. (2021). COVID-19 and its long-term effects on activity participation and travel behaviour: A multiperspective view. Journal of Transport Geography, 95, Article 103144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2021.103144

Vyas, L. (2022). “New normal” at work in a post-COVID world: Work–life balance and labor markets. Policy and Society, 41(1), 155–167. https://doi.org/10.1093/polsoc/puab011

Vij, A., Souza, F. F., Barrie, H., Anilan, V., Sarmiento, S., & Washington, L. (2023). Employee preferences for working from home in Australia. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 214, 782-800. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2023.08.020

Wiese, C. W., Li, Y., Tang, Y., & Brown, T. I. (2023). The unique impact of commuting time, quality, and predictability on worker well‑being and performance. Occupational Health Science, 8(1), 127–159. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41542-023-00164-w