Unequal Journeys: Do Income and Neighborhood Influence Public Transport Travel Times in German Cities?
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.59490/ejtir.2026.26.1.7815Keywords:
public transportation, travel time expenditure, modal choice, travel speed, time scarcityAbstract
Inefficient public transport is a barrier to increased use and can contribute to time scarcity. Most comparisons of travel time across modes come from accessibility studies that compare trip data and leave several questions unanswered. These include whether the travel time disadvantage of public transport at the trip level translates into a disadvantage at the household level, given the interdependence of mobility choices among household members. Also, whether public transportation is the least time-competitive for social groups that rely on it most, particularly low-income households and those living in low-income neighborhoods.
To investigate these questions, the study employs survey data on daily mobility comprised of data from 67,455 individuals aggregated at the household level across 79 German cities in 2017. The data are supplemented by independent 1km-by-1km grid-level data on neighborhood poverty and centrality and are analyzed via multi-level regression models. Results indicate that the travel time disadvantage of public transportation is mitigated at the household level, and there is no indication that disadvantaged households experience longer travel times given equal travel distances when using public transport. However, the travel time disadvantage of low-income households is not fully explained by the use of public transport over cars, car ownership nor neighborhood centrality.
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