The Privatisation of a National Project
The settlements along the Trans-Israel Highway since 1977
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.7480/abe.2020.14.5193Abstract
In Israel, the development of new settlements is a leading national project. This began in the turn of the 20th century as national Zionist organisations established new frontier settlements in Palestine, in the efforts to secure the territory needed for a future state and to encourage a spiritual national renaissance. With its establishment in 1948, the young state of Israel took over the process, continuing the pre-state settlement endeavours of securing spatial control while endorsing a new unified national identity. Accordingly, the state promoted, directed, and executed the construction of a series of rural and industrial settlements that corresponded with the national geopolitical agenda and the hegemonic socialisation policy. Consequently, the architectural and urban features of these settlements were parallel to the ruling political, economic and social values and were thus characterised by reproduced homogeneous and economical residential environments.
During the 1970s, the monolithic state-led development began to transform with the growing privatisation of the Israeli economy. These transformations reached a point of no return with the election of the first liberal and anti-socialist government in 1977; eventually turning into a national consensus. At the same time, the state did not abandon its geopolitical agenda and the attempts of securing spatial control through settlement. Nevertheless, it began dismantling its monopoly over the establishment of new localities, granting selected group spatial privileges and thus turning them into spatial agents that develop the frontier on its behalf. Initially, the privatisation of the national settlement project began with ex-urban and suburban communities, serving favoured societal groups. Eventually, with the growing involvement of private capital, it turned into a large-scale corporate-led development venture, dictated by financial interests while fulfilling geopolitical objectives.
Privatisation, neoliberalism and market-economy are usually used as an antithesis to state involvement, regulation and nationalism. Conversely, this dissertation illustrates that the privatisation of the national territorial project was a statedirected effort intended to align the geopolitical agenda with the prevailing neoliberal order; using the market-economy as a means to enhance the state’s control over space. This dissertation focuses on the border area with the occupied Palestinian West-Bank, the Green-Line. Scarcely populated in the first three decades after the establishment of Israel, this area witnessed an ever-growing state-directed development effort following the occupation of the Palestinian territories in 1967. Developed by an increasing private involvement, this area constitutes a unique case study on the relationship between geopolitics and market economy; marked by the construction of the first privately developed national infrastructure project in the early 2000s – the Trans-Israel Highway.
To understand the privatisation of this national project since 1977, this dissertation proposes focusing on the settlement mechanism. This comprises the reciprocal interests of the state and various private groups to develop and domesticate the frontier area of the Green-Line. Centring on the spatial privileges the state granted diverse spatial agents, this dissertation examines how different favoured groups were given the power to colonise, plan, develop and market space in return for enhancing the state’s power over it. Investigating how this settlement mechanism transformed over the years, including a variety of spatial agents and diverse spatial privileges, this research explores the increasing privatisation of the local economy and culture, as well as the manner in which it was manifested in the built environment. Examining the modifications in the architectural and urban products this mechanism produced, this research analyses the materialisation of the privatised national settlement project and how it transformed together with the changing political and economic interests.
Focusing on the area along the Green-Line, this dissertation starts with examining the Community Settlements of the late 1970s and then moves to the Suburban Settlements of the 1980s. Examining both phenomena, the dissertation explains how their ex-urban and suburban qualities corresponded with the granted spatial privileges, forming a geopolitical tool intended to domesticate the Green-Line. Subsequently, the dissertation concentrates on the mass suburbanisation of the 1990s and the financialisation of the 2000s. Examining both stages, this dissertation illustrates how the state asked to domesticate the frontier by turning it into a real estate market; directing investment while securing the developers’ profitability and rentability concerns. Observing these four stages, this dissertation examines the gradual privatisation of the settlement mechanism. Analysing the different settlement phenomena, this research explains how the transforming individual and corporate interests were manifested in the built environment. Eventually, enabling the continuation of the national geopolitical agenda by tying it to the rationale of the market; replacing the former monolithic state-led development by uniform and reproduced corporate-led projects.
References
Abreek-Zubeidat, Fatina, and Ronen Ben-Arie. ‘To Be at Home: Spaces of Citizenship in the Community Settlements of the Galilee’. In The Politics of Nihilism: From the Nineteenth Century to Contemporary Israel, edited by Nitzan Lebovic, Ben-Shai, and Roy, 205–226. New York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2014.
Adiv, Michal, and Assaf Schwartz. Sharon’s Star Wars: Israel’s Seven Star Settlement Plan. Jerusalem: Hanitzotz A-Sharara, 1992.
Adorno, Theodor. The Culture Industry: Selected Essays on Mass Culture. London: Routledge, 2007.
Adorno, Theodor, and Max Horkheimer. Dialectic of Enlightenment. Palo Alto, California: Stanford University Press, 2007.
Agamben, Giorgio. State of Exception. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008.
Alba, R.D., and J.R. Logan. ‘Variations on Two Themes: Racial and Ethnic Patterns in the Attainment of Suburban Residence’. Demography 28 (1991): 431–53.
Alfasi, Nurit, and Tovi Fenster. ‘Between Socio-Spatial and Urban Justice: Rawls’ Principles of Justice in the 2011 Israeli Protest Movement’. Planning Theory 13, no. 4 (2014): 407–427.
Allegra, Marco. ‘“Outside Jerusalem—yet so Near”: Ma’ale Adumim, Jerusalem, and the Suburbanization of Israel’s Settlement Policy’. In Normalizing Occupation. The Politics of Everyday Life in the West Bank Settlements, edited by A.Handel Marco Allegra and E. Maggor, 48–63. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2017.
———. ‘The Politics of Suburbia: Israel’s Settlement Policy and the Production of Space in the Metropolitan Area of Jerusalem’. Environment and Planning A 45 (2013): 497–516.
Allweil, Yael. Homeland: Zionism as Housing Regime, 1860–2011. London: Taylor & Francis, 2016.
Almog, Oz. The Sabre - a Profile. Tel Aviv: Am Oved, 1997.
Alterman, Rachelle. Planning in the Face of Crisis. New York and London: Routledge, 2002.
Appelbaum, Levia, and David Newman. Between Village and Suburb: New Forms of Settlement in Israel. Rehovot: National Institute of Agriculture, 1989.
Archer, John. Architecture and Suburbia: From English Villa to American Dream House, 1690-2000. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2005.
Arnon, Soffer, and R. Finkel. The Lookouts in the Galilee-Aims, Results and Lessons. Rehovot: Center of Settlement Research, 1988.
Azaryahu, Maoz. ‘McIsrael? On the “Americanization of Israel”. Israel Studies 5, no. 1 (2000): 41–64.
Azrayahu, Maoz. ‘Rabin’s Road: The Politics of Toponymic Commemoration of Yitzhak Rabin in Israel’. Political Geography 31, no. 2 (2012): 73–82.
Bareli, Avi, and Uri Cohen. The Academic Middle-Class Rebellion Socio-Political Conflict Over Wage-Gaps in Israel. Vol. 30. Leiden; Boston: Brill Academic Pub, 2018.
Bar-Nathan, Moshe, Michael Beenstock, and Yoel Haitovsky. ‘The Market for Housing in Israel’. Regional Science and Urban Economics 28, no. 1 (1998): 21–49.
Barnstone, Deborah Ascher. The Transparent State: Architecture and Politics in Postwar Germany. London and New York: Routledge, 2005.
Barzilai, Gad. ‘Fantasies of Liberalism and Liberal Jurisprudence State Law: Politics and the Israeli Arab-Palestinian Community’. Israel Law Review 34, no. 3 (2000): 426–451.
Bauman, Zygmunt. Community Seeking Safety in an Insecure World. Cambridge: Cambridge university press, 2001.
Ben-Porat, Amir. Where are those bourgeois? Tel Aviv: Magnes, 1999.
Ben-Porat, Guy, Yagil Levy, Shlomo Mizrahi, Arye Naor, and Erez Tzfadia. Israel since 1980. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2008.
Benvenisti, Meron. Report: Demographic, Economic, Legal, Social, and Political Developments in the West Bank. Jerusalem and Boulder: Jerusalem Post and Westview Press, 1987.
———. Sacred Landscape. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002.
———. The West Bank Data Project: A Survey of Israel’s Policies. Washington: Aei Press, 1984.
Berger, Tamar. Autotopia: Suburban In-between Space in Israel. Tel Aviv: Hakibbutz Hameuchad, 2015.
Betts, Paul. ‘The Bauhaus as Cold War Legend: West German Modernism Revisited’. German Politics and Society (Hatje Cantz 14, no. 12 (2010): 75 – 100.
Bhabha, Homi. The Location of Culture. London: Routledge, 1994.
Billig, Miriam. ‘The Jewish Settlements in Judea and Samaria (1967–2008): Historical Overview’. History and Philosophy of Jewish Settlement 331–347 (2015).
Blatman-Thomas, Naama. ‘From Transients to Residents: Urban Indignity in Israel and Australia’. Journal of Historical Geography 58 (2017): 1–11.
Boruchov, Eliahu. ‘On Target: The Housing Crisis and Damage to the Planning System’. Planning 15, no. 2 (2018): 63–85.
Bourdieu, Pierre. Distinctions. New York: Routledge, 1984.
———. ‘The Berber House’. In Rules and Meanings, edited by Mary Douglas, 98–110. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1973.
———. ‘The Forms of Capital’. In Handbook of the Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education, edited by J.G. Richardson, 241–258. New York: Greenwood Press, 1986.
Brand, Roy, and Ori Scialom. The Urburb - Patterns of Contemporary Living. Montreal: Sternthal Books, 2014.
Brenner, Niel, and Stuart Elden. ‘Henri Lefebvre on State, Space, Territory’. International Political Sociology 3 (2009): 353–377. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-5687.2009.00081.x.
Brenner, Niel, Bob Jessop, Martin Jones, and Gordon MacLeod. ‘State Space in Question’. In State/Space: A Reader, edited by Niel Brenner, Bob Jessop, Martin Jones, and Gordon MacLeod, 1–26, 2003.
Brenner, Niel, and Nik Theodore. ‘Cities and the Geographies of “actually Existing Neoliberalism’. Antipode 34, no. 4 (2002): 349–379.
Cahaner, Lee. ‘Between Ghetto Politics and Geopolitics: Ultraorthodox Settlements in the West Bank’. In Normalizing Occupation: The Politics of Everyday Life in the West Bank Settlements Edited, edited by Marco Allegra, Ariel Handel, and Erez Maggor, 112–127. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 2017.
Carmon, Naomi. ‘Achieving Population Dispersal through Tailor-Made Community Planning: An Israeli Experiment in the Galilee Region’. Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space 26, no. 4 (1994): 639–656.
———. ‘Housing Policy in Israel: Review, Evaluation and Lessons’. Israel Affairs 7, no. 4 (2001): 181–208.
Charles, Kelly. ‘Limitations to the Use of Military Resources for Foreign Disaster Assistance’. Disaster Prevention and Management: An International Journal 5, no. 1 (1996): 22–29.
Charney, Igal. ‘A “Supertanker” Against Bureaucracy in the Wake of a Housing Crisis: Neoliberalizing Planning in Netanyahu’s Israel: Neoliberalizing Planning in Netanyahu’s Israel’. Antipode 49, no. 5 (2017): 1223–1243.
Chevalier, Michel. ‘Neo-rural phenomena’. In Espace géographique (Special issue in English, 175–191, 1993.
Christopher, A.J. ‘“Divide and Rule”: The Impress of British Separation Policies’. Area 20, no. 3 (1988): 233–240.
Chyutin, Michael, and Bracha Chyutin. Architecture and Utopia: Kibbutz and Moshav. Jerusalem: Magnes, 2010.
Cohen, A. ‘Problems of Development Towns and Urban Housing Quarters’. The Economic Quarterly 49, no. 50 (1966): 117–131.
Cohen, Shaul. ‘Israel’s West Bank Barrier: An Impediment to Peace?’ Geographical Review 96, no. 4 (2006): 682–695.
Cohen, Uri, and Nissim Leon. ‘The New Mizrahi Middle Class: Ethnic Mobility and Class Integration in Israel’. Journal of Israeli History Politics, Society, Culture (Journal of Israeli History Politics, Society, Culture 27, no. 1 (2008): 51–64.
Dalsheim, Joyce. ‘Twice Removed: Mizrahi Settlers in Gush Katif’. Social Identities 14 (2008): 535–551.
Delso, Rodrigo. ‘Concrete Punishment: Time, Architecture and Art as Weapons in the Israeli- Palestinian Conflict’. Political Geography 66 (2018): 57–66.
Dirsuweit, Teresa, and Alex Wafer. ‘Suburban Road-Closures and the Ruinous Landscapes of Privilege in Johannesburg’. A Journal of African Studies 42, no. 3 (2016): 395–410.
Douer, Yair. Our Sickle is Our Sword. Tel Aviv: Yad Tevenkin, 1992.
———. Our Sickle is Our Sword. Tel Aviv: Yad Tevenkin, 1992.
Dovey, Kim. Framing Place. Mediating Power in Built Form. London: Routledge, 1999.
Efrat, Elisha. ‘Changes in Israel’s Urban System after Forty Years of Statehood (1948—1988’. In Eretz-Israel: Archaeological, Historical and Geographical Studies DAVID AMIRAN VOLUME: 19-26, 1991.
———. ‘Geographical Distribution of the Soviet-Jewish New Immigrants in Israel’. GeoJournal 24, no. 4 (1991): 355–363.
———. ‘Israel’s Planned New “Crossing Highway”’. Journal of Transport Geography 2, no. 4 (1994): 274–277.
———. ‘New Development Towns of Israel (1948-93’. Cities 11, no. 4 (1994): 247–252.
Efrat, Elisha, and Jacob Dash. The Israel Physical Master Plan. Jerusalem: Ministry of Interior, Planning Department, 1964.
Efrat, Zvi. The Israeli Project: Building and Architecture 1948-1973. Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv Museum of Art, 2005.
———. The Object of Zionism: The Architecture of Israel. Leipzig: Spector Books, 2019.
El-hanani, Edith. ‘Feelings of Ethnic Discrimination in two Development Towns’. Megamot 1 (1983): 97–99.
Engle, Randi, Jennider Langer-Osuna, and Maxine McKinney de Royston. ‘Toward a Model of Influence in Persuasive Discussions: Negotiating Quality, Authority, Privilege, and Access Within a Student-Led Argument’. Journal of the Learning Sciences 23, no. 3 (2014): 245–68.
Eshel, Sharon, and Ravit Hananel. ‘Centralization, Neoliberalism, and Housing Policy Central–Local Government Relations and Residential Development in Israel’. Politics and Space 37, no. 2 (2018): 237–255.
Falah, Ghazi. ‘Israeli “Judaization” Policy in Galilee’. Journal of Palestine Studies 20, no. 4 (1991): 69–85.
Filc, Dani. Hegemony and Populism in Israel. Tel Aviv: Resling, 2006.
———. The Political Right in Israel. London & New York: Routledge, 2010.
Findley, Lisa. Building Change: Architecture, Politics and Cultural Agency. New York: Routledge, 2005.
First, Anat, and Eli Avraham. America in Jerusalem: Globalization, National Identity, and Israeli Advertising. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2009.
Foucault, Michel. Discipline and Punish. 2nd ed. New York: Vintage Books, 1995.
———. Society Must Be Defended. Translated by Jamey Macey. New York, NY: Picador, 2003.
———. ‘Space, Knowledge, Power: Interview with Paul Rabinow’. In Rethinking Architecture - A Reader in Cultural Theory, edited by Neil Leach, 367–380. London: Routledge, 1997.
Galster, George. ‘Comparing Demand‐side and Supply‐side Housing Policies: Sub‐market and Spatial Perspectives’. Housing Studies 12, no. 4 (1997): 561–577.
Garb, Yaacov. ‘Constructing the Trans-Israel Highway’s Inevitability’. Israel Studies 9, no. 2 (2004): 180–217.
Gazit, Pnina, and Arnon Soffer. Between the Sharon and Samaria. Haifa: University of Haifa, 2005.
Giddens, Anthony. Central Problems in Social Theory. London: Macmillan, 1979.
Gitler, Ben-Asher, Inbal, and Anat Geva. Israel as a Modern Architectural Experimental Lab, 1948-1978. Bristol, UK: Intellect Ltd, 2019.
Gonen, Amiram, and Gad Cohen. ‘Multi-Faceted Screw-up of Neighborhoods in Jerusalem’. City and Region (Ir Veezor 19, no. 20 (1989): 9–27.
Gordis, Ben-Sasson, Avishay, and Yonatan Levi. Israel’s National Security and West Bank Settlements. Jerusalem: Molad - Center for the Renewal of Democracy Ltd, 2017.
Govrin, Yosef. Israeli-Soviet Relations, 1953-1967 From Confrontation to Disruption. London: Routledge, 1998.
Graeber, David. Debt: The First 5000 Years. New York: Melville House Publishing, 2011.
———. The Utopia of Rules. New York: Melville House, 2015.
Gramsci, Antonio. Selections from Cultural Writings. Edited by Quintin Hoare and Geoffrey Nowell Smith. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1985.
Guimond, Laurie, and Myriam Simard. ‘Gentrification and Neo-Rural Populations in the Québec Countryside: Representations of Various Actors’. Journal of Rural Studies 26 (2010): 449–464.
Gurion, Ben, and David. Unification and Calling - On Israel’s Security. Jerusalem: Maarachot, 1971.
Gutwein, Daniel. ‘Pioneer Bourgeoisie’. In Culture, Memory and History, 685–746. Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv University, 2012.
———. ‘The class logic of the “long revolution”, 1973-1977’. In Iyunim Bitkumat Israel (Studies in Israeli and Modern Jewish Society, 11:21–57, 2017.
———. ‘The Settlements and the Relationship between Privatization and the Occupation’. In Normalizing Occupation: The Politics of Everyday Life in the West Bank Settlements, 21–33. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2017.
Halliday, Joyce, and Mike Coombes. ‘In Search of Counterurbanisation: Some Evidence from Devon on the Relationship between Patterns of Migration and Motivation’. Journal of Rural Studies 11, no. 4 (1995): 433–446.
Handel, Ariel. ‘Gated/Gating Community: The Settlement Complex in the West Bank’. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 39 (2014): 504–517.
Handel, Ariel, Galit Rand, and Marco Allegra. ‘Wine-Washing: Colonization, Normalization, and the Geopolitics of Terroir in the West Bank’s Settlements’. Environment and Planning 47 (2015): 1351–1367.
Harvey, David. A Brief History of Neoliberalism. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.
———. Seventeen Contradictions and the End of Capitalism. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014.
———. The Condition of Postmodernity. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1990.
———. The Limits to Capital. London: Verso, 2006.
Hason, Yael. Three decades of privatisation. Tel Aviv: Adva Center, 2006.
Hatuka, Tali, Roni Bar, Michael Jacobson, Hila Lothan, Merav Battat, and Jessica Fain. Neighborhood-State. Tel Aviv: Resling, 2012.
Hayden, Dolores. Redesigning the American Dream: Gender, Housing, and Family Life. 2nd ed. New York, New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2002.
Healey, Patsy. ‘Circuits of Knowledge and Techniques: The Transnational Flow of Planning Ideas and Practices’. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 37 (2013): 1510–1526.
Heilbronner, Oded. ‘The Israeli Victorians’. Iyonim Betkumat Israel 28 (2017): 128–168.
Hein, Carola. ‘The What, Why, and How of Planning History’. In The Routledge Handbook of Planning History, edited by Carola Hein, 1–11. London: Routledge, 2018.
Hines, J.Dwight. ‘In Pursuit of Experience: The Postindustrial Gentrification of the Rural American West’. Ethnography 11, no. 2 (2010): 285–308.
Hirst, Paul. Space and Power: Politics War and Architecture. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press, 2005.
Hobsbawm, Eric. Globalisation, Democracy and Terrorism. London: Little, 2008.
———. ‘Identity Politics and the Left’. Institute of Education, London, 1996. http://banmarchive.org.uk/articles/1996%20annual%20lecture.htm.
———. Nations and Nationalism since 1780. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
Holston, James. The Modernist City: An Anthropological Critique of Brasilia. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989.
Ioffe, Grigory, and Tatyana Nefedova. ‘Environs of Russian Cities: A Case Study of Moscow’. Europe-Asia Studies 50, no. 8 (1998): 1325–1356.
Isaac, Jeffrey. ‘Beyond the Three Faces of Power’. In Rethinking Power, edited by Thomas Wartenberg, 32–55. Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 1992.
Jabareen, Yossef, and H. Dbiat. Architecture and orientalism in the country. Haifa: The Technical Institute of Israel, 2014.
Jackson, Kenneth T. Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985.
Jencks, Charles. The Language of Post-Modern Architecture. New York: Rizzoli International publications, 1977.
Kamalipour, Yahya R. Images of the U.S. around the World: A Multicultural Perspective. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1999.
Kano, Jacques. The Problem of Land Between Jews and Arabs (1917-1990). Tel Aviv: Sifriyat Poalim, 1992.
Kemp, Adriana. ‘The Frontier Idiom on Borders and Territorial Politics in Post-1967 Israel’. Geography Research Forum 19 (1999): 78–97.
Khalidi, Walid. All That Remains: The Palestinian Villages Occupied and Depopulated by Israel in 1948. Washington D.C: Institute for Palestine Studies, 1992.
Kimmerling, Baruch. The End of Ashkenazi Hegemony. Tel Aviv: Keter Publishing House, 2001.
———. Zionism and Territory: The Socio-Territorial Dimensions of Zionist Politics. Berkeley: Institute of International Studies, University of California, 1983.
Kishk, Abu, and Bakir. ‘Arab Land and Israeli Policy’. Journal of Palestine Studies 11, no. 1 (1981): 124–135.
Lake, Robert W., and Susan Caris Cutter. ‘A Typology of Black Suburbanization in New Jersey since 1970’. Geographical Review 70, no. 2 (1980): 167–181.
Lane, Barbara M. Architecture and Politics in Germany, 1918-1945. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1985.
Lefebvre, Henri. The Production of Space. New York: John Wiley and Sons Ltd, 1991.
———. Writings on Cities. Translated by Elenoere Kofman and Elizabeth Lebas. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 1996.
Lehn, Walter. ‘The Jewish National Fund’. Journal of Palestine Studies 3, no. 4 (1974): 74–96.
Leibniz, Gottfried. Monadology. Translated by Rober Latta. Dumfries & Galloway: Anodocs Books, 2017.
Leonard, Pauline. ‘Landscaping Privilege: Being British in South Africa’. In Geographies of Privilege, edited by France Winddance Twine and Bradley Gardener. London & New York: Routledge, 2013.
Liechty, Mark. Suitably Modern Making Middle-Class Culture in a New Consumer Society. Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002.
Logan, John, and Harvey Molotch. Urban Fortunes: A Political Economy of Place. Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1987.
Logan, J.R., and R.D. Alba. ‘Minority Proximity to Whites in Suburbs: An Individual-Level Analysis of Segregation’. American Journal of Sociology 98 (1993): 1388–427.
Lovering, John. ‘Will Recession Prove to Be a Turning Point in Planning and Urban Development Thinking?’ International Planning Studies 15, no. 3 (2001): 15.
MacCannell, Dean. The Tourist: A New Theory of the Leisure Class. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976.
MacIver, R.M. The Modern State. London: Oxford University Press, 1926.
Maggor, Erez. ‘State, Market and the Israeli Settlements: The Ministry of Housing and the Shift from Messianic Outposts to Urban Settlements in the Early 1980s’. Israeli Sociology 16 (2015): 140–167.
Marcuse, Herbert. One-Dimensional Man. Boston: Beacon Press, 2012.
Marcuse, Peter. ‘Housing Policy and the Myth of the Benevolent State’. Social Policy 9, no. 4 (1978): 21–26.
Marom, Nathan. ‘Activising Space: The Spatial Politics of the 2011 Protest Movement in Israel’. Urban Studies 50, no. 13 (2013): 2826–2841.
Marshall, Harvey. ‘White Movement to the Suburbs: A Comparison of Explanations’. American Sociological Review 44, no. 6 (1979): 975–994.
Marx, Karl. Capital: A Critique of Political Economy. Vol. 1. London: Penguin, 1992.
Mbembe, Achille. ‘Necropolitics’. Public Culture 15, no. 1 (2003): 11–40.
Molnar, Virag. Building the State Architecture, Politics, and State Formation in Post-War Central Europe. Londong & New York: Routledge, 2013.
Morris, Benny. Righteous Victims: A History of the Zionist-Arab Conflict, 1881-1998. New York: Vintage Book, 2001.
———. The Birth of The Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2004.
Mualem, Nir. ‘Playing with Supertankers: Centralization in Land Use Planning in Israel: A National Experiment Underway’. Land Use Policy 75 (2018): 269–283.
Neuman, Boaz. Land and Desire in Early Zionism. Waltham: Brandeis University Press, 2011.
Neupane, Gita, and Meda Chesney. ‘Violence against Women on Public Transport in Nepal: Sexual Harassment and the Spatial Expression of Male Privilege’. International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice 38, no. 1 (2014): 23–38.
Newman, David. ‘Gush Emunim and Settlement‐type in the West Bank’. British Society for Middle Eastern Studies 8, no. 1 (1981): 33–37.
———. ‘Settlement as Suburbanization: The Banality of Colonization’. In Normalizing Occupation: The Politics of Everyday Life in the West Bank Settlements, edited by Ariel Handel, Marco Allegra, and Erez Maggor, 24–47. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 2017.
Nitzan-Shiftan, Alona. Seizing Jerusalem: The Architectures of Unilateral Unification. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2017.
———. ‘Whitened Houses’. Theory and Criticism (Teoria vebekoret 16 (2000): 227–232.
Niu, Ben, and Tan Gang. ‘Enforcing User-Space Privilege Separation with Declarative Architectures’. In Proceedings of the Seventh ACM Workshop on Scalable Trusted Computing. Raleigh North Carolina USA: Association for Computing Machinery, 2012. https://doi.org/10.1145/2382536.2382541.
Pais, Jeremy, Scott South, and Kyle Crowder. ‘Metropolitan Heterogeneity and Minority Neighborhood Attainment: Spatial Assimilation or Place Stratification?’ Soc Probl 59, no. 2 (2012): 258–281.
Phillips, Martin. ‘Rural Gentrification and the Processes of Class Colonisation’. Journal of Rural Studies 9, no. 2 (1993): 123–140.
Popper, Karl. The Logic of Scientific Discovery. New York and London: Routledge, 2002.
Portugali, Juval. ‘Jewish Settlement in the Occupied Territories: Israel’s Settlement Structure and the Palestinians’. Political Geography Quarterly 10 (1991): 26–53.
Portugali, Juval, and Nurit Alfasi. ‘An Approach to Planning Discourse Analysis’. Urban Studies 45, no. 2 (2008): 251–272.
Prescott, John Robert Victor. Political Frontiers and Boundaries. New York: Routledge, 1987.
Pullan, Wendy. ‘Frontier urbanism: the periphery at the centre of contested cities’. The Journal of Architecture 16, no. 1 (2011).
Rabinowitz, Dan, and Itai Vardi. Driving Forces: Trans-Israel Highway and the privatization of Civil Infrastructures in Israel. Tel Aviv: Van Leer Institute Jerusalem/ Hakibbutz Hameuchad, 2010.
Ram, Uri. ‘Glocommodification: How the Global Consumes the Local – McDonald’s in Israel’. Current Sociology 52, no. 1 (2004): 11–31.
———. The Globalization of Israel. New York: Routledge, 2008.
Razin, Elad. ‘Urban Economic Development in a Period of Local Initiative: Competition among Towns in Israel’s Southern Coastal Plain’. Urban Studies 27 (1990): 685–703.
Ritzer, George. ‘The McDonaldization Thesis’. Explorations and Extensions 1 (1998).
Rolnik, Raquel. Urban Warfare: Housing under the Empire of Finance. English. New York: Verso, 2019.
Ron, James. Frontiers and Ghettos: State Violence in Serbia and Israel. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003.
Rose, Damaris. ‘Rethinking Gentrification: Beyond the Uneven Development of Marxist Urban Theory’. Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 2 (1984): 47–74.
Rosen, Gilad, and Eran Razin. ‘Enclosed Residential Neighborhoods in Israel: From Landscapes of Heritage and Frontier Enclaves to New Gated Communities’. . . Environment and Planning A 40 (2008): 2895–2913.
———. ‘The Rise of Gated Communities in Israel: Reflections on Changing Urban Governance in a Neo-Liberal Era’. Urban Studies 46 (2009): 1702–1722.
Rotbard, Sharon. ‘Wall and Tower’. In A Civilian Occupation, edited by Rafi Segal and Eyal Weizman, 39–58. London: Verso, 2003.
———. White City, Black City: Architecture and War in Tel Aviv and Jaffa. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2015.
Rozin, Orit. A Home for All Jews, Citizenship, Rights, and National Identity in the New Israeli. Waltham: Brandeis University Press, 2016.
Rubin, Ziv, and Daniel Felsenstein. ‘Supply Side Constraints in the Israeli Housing Market: The Impact of State Owned Land’. Land Use Policy 65 (2017): 266–276.
Said, Edward. The Question of Palestine. New York: Times Books, 1979.
Sand, Shlomo. The Invention of the Jewish People. New York: Verso, 2009.
Sasson-Levy, Orna. ‘Where Will the Women Be? Gendered Implications of the Decline of Israel’s Citizen Army’. In The New Citizen Armies: Israel’s Armed Forces in Comparative Perspective, edited by Stuart Cohen, 173–195. New York: Routledge, 2010.
Schwake, Gabriel. ‘Post-Traumatic Urbanism: Repressing Manshiya and Wadi Salib’. Cities 75, no. May (2018): 50–58.
———. ‘The Americanisation of Israeli Housing Practices’. The Journal of Architecture (2020). 25:3, 295-316.
——— Supply-side Territoriality: reshaping a geopolitical project according to economic means. Space and Polity (2020).DOI: 10.1080/13562576.2020.1788930
——— The Community Settlement: a neo-rural territorial tool. Planning Perspectives (2020). DOI: 10.1080/02665433.2020.1728569
——— Settle and Rule: the evolution of a national project. Architecture and Culture, pp 1–22 (2020). DOI:10.1080/20507828. 2020.1730624
——— An Officer and a Bourgeois: IDF personnel settlements. Planning Perspectives (2020). DOI:10.1080/02665433.2020.1781683
Scialom, Ori, and Roy Brand. The Urburb - Patterns of Contemporary Living. 1st ed. Montreal: Sternthal Books, 2014.
Scott, James. Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999.
Segal, Rafi, and Weizman Eyal. A Civilian Occupation: The Politics of Israeli Architecture. London: Verso, 2003.
———. ‘The Mountain’. In A Civilian Occupation: The Politics of Israeli Architecture, 79–99. London: Verso, 2003.
Segev, Tom. Elvis in Jerusalem: Post-Zionism and the Americanization of Israel. New York: Metropolitan Books, 2002.
Shachar, Arieh. ‘Reshaping the Map of Israel: A New National Planning Doctrine’. In The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 209–218, 1998.
Shadar, Hadas. The Foundations of Public Housing. Tel Aviv: Ministry of Construction and Housing, 2014.
Shafir, Gershon. ‘From Overt to Veiled Segregation: Israel’s Palestinian Arab Citizens in the Galilee’. Middle East Studies 50 (2018): 1–22.
Shapira, Anita. New Jews Old Jews. Tel Aviv: Am Oved, 1997.
Sharet, Moshe. Political Diary B. Tel Aviv: Am Oved, 1968.
Sharon, Arieh. Kibbutz + Bauhaus: An Architect’s Way in a New Land. Stuttgart: Karl Kramer Verlag, 1976.
———. Physical Planning in Israel. Jerusalem: Israeli Government, 1951.
Sheikh, Faheem. ‘Pan-Arabism: A Tool of Ruling Elites or a Politically-Relevant Ideology?’ Policy Perspectives 13, no. 2 (2016): 93–107.
Shenhav, Yehouda. The Arab Jews: A Postcolonial Reading of Nationalism, Religion, and Ethnicity. Redwood: Stanford University Press, 2006.
Sklair, Leslie. ‘Iconic Architecture and Urban, National, and Global Identities’. In Cities and Sovereignty: Identity Politics in Urban Spaces, edited by Diane E. Davis and Nora Libertun Duren, 179–195. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2011.
Smith, D.P., and D.A. Phillips. ‘Socio-Cultural Representations of Greentrified Pennine Rurality’. Journal of Rural Studies 7, no. 4 (2001): 457–469.
Soffer, Arnon. ‘Mitzpim in the Galilee - a decade of their establishment’. Karkaa 34 (1992): 24–29.
———. The Eastern Frontier, 2018.
Sontag, Susan. ‘Fascinating Fascism’. In Under the Sign of Saturn, 73–105. New York: Picador, 1980.
Spengler, Oswald. The Decline of the West. New York: Vintage Books, 2006.
Stanek, Łukasz. ‘French Post-War Architecture and Its Critics’. In Architecture and the Welfare State, edited by Mark Swenarton, Tom Avermaete, and Dirk Heuvel, 113–132. New York: Routledge, 2015.
Tal, Einat. The Frontier Fortresses Plan. Haifa: University of Haifa, 2016.
Tessler, Mark. A History of the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1994.
Tolz, Mark. ‘Jewish Emigration from the Former USSR since 1970’. Demoscope 497, no. 6 (2012): 1–27.
Tönnies, Ferdinand. Community and Civil Society. Edited by Jose Harris. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2001.
Trezib, Joachim. Die Theorie der zentralen Orte in Israel und Deutschland: Zur Rezeption Walter Christallers im Kontext von Sharonplan und ‘Generalplan Ost’. Berlin: De Gruyter Oldenbourg, 2014.
Troen, Illan. ‘Frontier Myths and Their Applications in America and Israel: A Transnational Perspective’. The Journal of American History 86, no. 3 The Nation and Beyond: Transnational Perspectives on United States History: A Special Issue (1999): 1209–30.
Turner, Frederick Jackson. The Frontier in American History. New York: Henry Holt, Rinehart & Winston., 1962.
Tzfadia, Erez. ‘Abusing Multiculturalism: The Politics of Recognition and Land Allocation in Israel’. Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 26 (2008): 1115–1130.
———. ‘Public Housing as Control: Spatial Policy of Settling Immigrants in Israeli Development Towns’. Journal Housing Studies 21, no. 4 (2006): 523–537.
Tzfadia, Erez, and Haim Yacobi. ‘Identity, Migration, and the City: Russian Immigrants in Contested Urban Space in Israel’ 28, no. 5 (2007): 436–55.
Vale, Lawrence. Architecture, Power and National Identity. 2nd ed. New York and London: Routledge, 2008.
———. From the Puritans to the Projects: Public Housing and Public Neighbors. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009.
———. ‘The Temptations of Nationalism in Modern Capital Cities.” I’. In Cities and Sovereignty: Identity Politics in Urban Spaces, edited by Diane E. Davis and Nora Libertun Duren, 196–205. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2011.
Van Slyck, Abigail. ‘The Spatial Practices of Privilege’. Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 70, no. 2 (2011): 210–39.
Wang, Lan, Ratoola Kundu, and Xiangming Chen. ‘Building for What and Whom? New Town Development as Planned Suburbanization in China and India’. In Suburbanization in Global Society, in Suburbanization in Global Society (Research in Urban Sociology, edited by Mark Clapson and Ray Hutchison, 10:319–345. Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing Limited, 2010.
Weiss, Hadas. ‘Embedded Politics in a West Bank Settlement’. In Normalizing Occupation: The Politics of Everyday Life in the West Bank Settlements, edited by M. Allegra, A. Handel, and E. Maggor, 75–91. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2017.
Weizman, Eyal. Hollow Land. London: Verso, 2007.
———. ‘Principles of Frontier Geography’. In City of Collision, edited by P. Misselwitz, T. Rieniets, Z. Efrat, R. Khamaisi, and R. Nasrallah, 84–92. Basel: Birkhäuser, 2006.
Whyte, H.William. The Organization Man. New York, New York: Simon & Schuster, 1956.
Wilner, Dorothy. Nation-Building and Community in Israel. Princeton University Press, 1969.
Wilton, Robert. ‘Colouring Special Needs: Locating Whiteness in NIMBY Conflicts’. Social & Cultural Geography 3, no. 3 (2002): 303–21.
Wright, Gwendolyn. Building the Dream: A Social History of Housing in America. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1983.
Yacobi, Haim. ‘Architecture, Orientalism and Identity: The Politics of the Israeli-Built Environment’. Israel Studies 13, no. 1 (2008): 94–118.
———. Constructing a Sense of Place: Architecture and the Zionist Discourse. London: Routledge, 2017.
Yacobi, Haim, and Erez Tzfadia. ‘Neo-Settler Colonialism and the Re-Formation of Territory: Privatization and Nationalization in Israel’. Mediterranean Politics 24, no. 1 (2018): 1–19.
———. Rethinking Israeli Periphery. London & New York: Routledge, 2011.
Yacobi, Haim Yacobi, and Mansour Nasasra. ‘Introduction: Cities in the Middle East: Beyond “Middle Easternism”’. In Routledge Handbook on Middle East Cities, edited by Haim Yacobi Yacobi and Mansour Nasasra, 1–14. Londong: Routledge, 2018.
Yiftachel, Oren. ‘Bedouin-Arabs and the Israeli Settler State’. In Indigenous People between Autonomy and Globalization, edited by D. Champagne and I. Abu-Saad, 21–47. Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2003.
———. Ethnocracy: Land and Identity Politics in Israel/Palestine. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006.
———. ‘From Sharon to Sharon: Spatial Planning and Separation Regime in Israel/Palestine’. HAGAR Studies in Culture, Polity and Identities 20, no. 1 (2010): 73–106.
———. ‘Nation‐building or Ethnic Fragmentation? Frontier Settlement and Collective Identities in Israel’. Space and Polity 1, no. 2 (1997): 149–69.
———. ‘The Internal Frontier: Territorial Control and Ethnic Relations in Israel’. Regional Studies 30, no. 5 (1996): 493–508.
Yiftachel, Oren, and Nufar Avni. ‘Privati-nation’– Privatization, Nationalization, Housing and Gaps’. Planning (Tichnun 16, no. 1 (2019): 225–247.
Yiftachel, Oren, and Alexander Kader. ‘Landed power: the making of the Israeli land regime’. Teoria VeBikoret, 2000, 67–103.
Yozgof-Orbach, Nikola, and Arnon Soffer. Between Judaization and Loss: The Case of Nazareth Illit 1956-2016. Haifa: The University of Haifa, 2016.
